{
  "title": "Ozzi ingredient research library",
  "reviewedOn": "2026-09-09",
  "canonicalUrl": "https://heyozzi.com/pages/research",
  "context": "Individual ingredient studies and other formulations; these are not clinical trials of the finished Ozzi formula.",
  "publicationCount": 82,
  "studies": [
    {
      "ingredient": "Allulose",
      "number": 1,
      "pmid": "33637605",
      "title": "Effects of D-allulose on glucose tolerance and insulin response to a standard oral sucrose load: results of a prospective, randomized, crossover study.",
      "authors": "Franchi F, Yaranov DM, Rollini F, Rivas A, Rivas Rios J, Been L, Tani Y, Tokuda M, Iida T, Hayashi N, Angiolillo DJ, Mooradian AD.",
      "year": "2021",
      "doi": "10.1136/bmjdrc-2020-001939",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33637605/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "30 adults without diabetes; randomized crossover; 2.5, 5, 7.5 or 10 g with 50 g sucrose.",
      "summary": "Allulose reduced the early post-drink glucose response in a dose-dependent pattern, with significant reductions at 7.5 and 10 g. The 10 g dose also reduced glucose and insulin excursions.",
      "journal": "BMJ open diabetes research & care"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Allulose",
      "number": 2,
      "pmid": "37375710",
      "title": "A Pilot Study on the Efficacy of a Diabetic Diet Containing the Rare Sugar D-Allulose in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Prospective, Randomized, Single-Blind, Crossover Study.",
      "authors": "Fukunaga K, Yoshimura T, Imachi H, Kobayashi T, Saheki T, Sato S, Saheki N, Jiang W, Murao K.",
      "year": "2023",
      "doi": "10.3390/nu15122802",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37375710/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "Randomized crossover pilot in type 2 diabetes; 8.5 g allulose per meal; continuous glucose monitoring.",
      "summary": "A diabetic diet containing 8.5 g allulose per meal reduced post-meal glucose peaks compared with the standard diabetic diet. This supplies another near-serving-dose example of human glucose research.",
      "journal": "Nutrients"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Allulose",
      "number": 3,
      "pmid": "42280385",
      "title": "Differential Modulation of Postprandial Glycemic, Incretin, and Satiety Responses by Low-Digestible Carbohydrates in Humans: An Exploratory Investigation.",
      "authors": "Noh J, Kim HR, Han J, Hwang H, Park J, Sa S, Atkinson F, Lau K, Byun S.",
      "year": "2026",
      "doi": "10.3390/nu18111742",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42280385/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "Two exploratory investigations, 10 participants each; 25 g carbohydrate testing and a separate 10 g allulose plus meal experiment.",
      "summary": "In the meal experiment, 10 g allulose lowered post-meal glucose and insulin responses and increased circulating active GLP-1 compared with the meal alone. A statistically significant satiety improvement was reported for resistant maltodextrin, not allulose.",
      "journal": "Nutrients"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Allulose",
      "number": 4,
      "pmid": "35135006",
      "title": "The Role of D-allulose and Erythritol on the Activity of the Gut Sweet Taste Receptor and Gastrointestinal Satiation Hormone Release in Humans: A Randomized, Controlled Trial.",
      "authors": "Teysseire F, Bordier V, Budzinska A, Weltens N, Rehfeld JF, Holst JJ, Hartmann B, Beglinger C, Van Oudenhove L, Wölnerhanssen BK, Meyer-Gerspach AC.",
      "year": "2022",
      "doi": "10.1093/jn/nxac026",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35135006/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "18 healthy adults; randomized double-blind crossover; 25 g allulose delivered into the stomach, with or without lactisole.",
      "summary": "Allulose increased GLP-1, PYY and CCK relative to water. Blocking the intestinal sweet-taste receptor with lactisole did not stop these responses, indicating that this receptor was not the mediator under the tested conditions.",
      "journal": "The Journal of nutrition"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Allulose",
      "number": 5,
      "pmid": "20208358",
      "title": "Study on the postprandial blood glucose suppression effect of D-psicose in borderline diabetes and the safety of long-term ingestion by normal human subjects.",
      "authors": "Hayashi N, Iida T, Yamada T, Okuma K, Takehara I, Yamamoto T, Yamada K, Tokuda M.",
      "year": "2010",
      "doi": "10.1271/bbb.90707",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20208358/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "26-person acute randomized crossover, 5 g with a meal; separate 17-person 12-week trial, 5 g three times daily.",
      "summary": "The acute experiment found lower post-meal glucose, particularly in participants with borderline diabetes. The separate repeated-intake experiment reported no abnormal clinical effects attributed to 15 g allulose per day over 12 weeks.",
      "journal": "Bioscience, biotechnology, and biochemistry"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Allulose",
      "number": 6,
      "pmid": "29797503",
      "title": "The effect of small doses of fructose and allulose on postprandial glucose metabolism in type 2 diabetes: A double-blind, randomized, controlled, acute feeding, equivalence trial.",
      "authors": "Noronha JC, Braunstein CR, Glenn AJ, Khan TA, Viguiliouk E, Noseworthy R, Blanco Mejia S, Kendall CWC, Wolever TMS, Leiter LA, Sievenpiper JL.",
      "year": "2018",
      "doi": "10.1111/dom.13374",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29797503/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "24 adults with type 2 diabetes; randomized crossover; 5 or 10 g allulose with 75 g glucose.",
      "summary": "The 10 g dose reduced incremental glucose exposure by about 8% versus control, with some secondary glucose measures improved at 5 g. The authors characterized the benefit as a modest acute reduction.",
      "journal": "Diabetes, obesity & metabolism"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Allulose",
      "number": 7,
      "pmid": "38945885",
      "title": "Effects of D-Allulose with Sucrose Beverage on Glucose Tolerance and Insulin Levels among Thai Healthy Volunteers.",
      "authors": "Buranapin S, Kosachunhanan N, Waisayanand N, Yokoi H, Tokuda M.",
      "year": "2024",
      "doi": "10.3177/jnsv.70.203",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38945885/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "30 healthy Thai adults; randomized double-blind crossover; 0 to 10 g allulose with 50 g sucrose.",
      "summary": "Adding allulose produced a dose-dependent attenuation of peak glucose and insulin responses. This provides a second population in which small doses were studied alongside a sugar-containing drink.",
      "journal": "Journal of nutritional science and vitaminology"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Allulose",
      "number": 8,
      "pmid": "28935140",
      "title": "d-Allulose enhances postprandial fat oxidation in healthy humans.",
      "authors": "Kimura T, Kanasaki A, Hayashi N, Yamada T, Iida T, Nagata Y, Okuma K.",
      "year": "2017",
      "doi": "10.1016/j.nut.2017.06.007",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28935140/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "13 healthy adults; randomized single-blind crossover; 5 g allulose 30 minutes before a standardized meal.",
      "summary": "Allulose increased measured post-meal fat oxidation and reduced carbohydrate oxidation compared with aspartame control. Glucose was lower, while insulin and several lipid measures did not change.",
      "journal": "Nutrition (Burbank, Los Angeles County, Calif.)"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Allulose",
      "number": 9,
      "pmid": "29385054",
      "title": "A Preliminary Study for Evaluating the Dose-Dependent Effect of d-Allulose for Fat Mass Reduction in Adult Humans: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial.",
      "authors": "Han Y, Kwon EY, Yu MK, Lee SJ, Kim HJ, Kim SB, Kim YH, Choi MS.",
      "year": "2018",
      "doi": "10.3390/nu10020160",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29385054/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "121 overweight or obese Korean adults entered a 12-week randomized trial; 4 g twice daily, 7 g twice daily or sucralose.",
      "summary": "Both allulose groups had favorable body-fat outcomes, and the higher-dose group also showed improvements in BMI and abdominal or subcutaneous fat measures versus placebo. The investigators called for further validation of the body-fat results.",
      "journal": "Nutrients"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Allulose",
      "number": 10,
      "pmid": "37432472",
      "title": "Short-term effects of allulose consumption on glucose homeostasis, metabolic parameters, incretin levels, and inflammatory markers in patients with type 2 diabetes: a double-blind, randomized, controlled crossover clinical trial.",
      "authors": "Preechasuk L, Luksameejaroenchai C, Tangjittipokin W, Kunavisarut T.",
      "year": "2023",
      "doi": "10.1007/s00394-023-03205-w",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37432472/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "16 adults with type 2 diabetes; randomized crossover; 7 g twice daily for 12 weeks versus aspartame.",
      "summary": "Allulose did not significantly improve glucose homeostasis, incretin levels or body composition. HDL cholesterol decreased and MCP-1 increased during the allulose period.",
      "journal": "European journal of nutrition"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Allulose",
      "number": 11,
      "pmid": "36678329",
      "title": "Metabolic Effects and Safety Aspects of Acute D-allulose and Erythritol Administration in Healthy Subjects.",
      "authors": "Teysseire F, Bordier V, Budzinska A, Van Oudenhove L, Weltens N, Beglinger C, Wölnerhanssen BK, Meyer-Gerspach AC.",
      "year": "2023",
      "doi": "10.3390/nu15020458",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36678329/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "18 healthy adults; acute crossover; 25 g allulose, 50 g erythritol or water.",
      "summary": "Allulose lowered glucose in this acute experiment; evidence for an insulin effect depended on the analysis used. Allulose did not reduce ghrelin or change the measured lipids, uric acid or inflammatory marker.",
      "journal": "Nutrients"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Allulose",
      "number": 12,
      "pmid": "30572580",
      "title": "Gastrointestinal Tolerance of D-Allulose in Healthy and Young Adults. A Non-Randomized Controlled Trial.",
      "authors": "Han Y, Choi BR, Kim SY, Kim SB, Kim YH, Kwon EY, Choi MS.",
      "year": "2018",
      "doi": "10.3390/nu10122010",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30572580/",
      "kind": "Human tolerance study",
      "design": "29 young adults in a non-randomized dose-escalation experiment; single doses 0.1–0.5 g/kg and separate daily escalation.",
      "summary": "Gastrointestinal symptoms became more prominent at higher doses, and the authors proposed 0.4 g/kg as a maximum single dose and 0.9 g/kg as a daily maximum for the studied setting. Symptoms could still occur below those proposed limits.",
      "journal": "Nutrients"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Allulose",
      "number": 13,
      "pmid": "38892699",
      "title": "Randomized Trial to Assess the Safety and Tolerability of Daily Intake of an Allulose Amino Acid-Based Hydration Beverage in Men and Women.",
      "authors": "Bloomer RJ, Pence J, Hellenbrand J, Davis A, Davis S, Stockton M, Martin KR.",
      "year": "2024",
      "doi": "10.3390/nu16111766",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38892699/",
      "kind": "Human tolerance study",
      "design": "40 adults; four randomized groups; placebo or one, two or three hydration-product packets daily for four weeks.",
      "summary": "An allulose-containing hydration beverage was generally well tolerated across dosing groups, with no clinically meaningful adverse changes in the measured safety outcomes. Mild gastrointestinal signals were observed, including bloating and cramping.",
      "journal": "Nutrients"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Allulose",
      "number": 14,
      "pmid": "42375569",
      "title": "D-Allulose as a Low-Calorie Sweetener: A 30-Day Randomized, Double-Blind Study on Gastrointestinal Tolerance and Systemic Safety to Support Its Application in Healthy Diets.",
      "authors": "Qi L, Ning J, Han J, Zhang N, Zhang W, Wang F, Li D, Li Z, Nie Y, Jing H, Gao S.",
      "year": "2026",
      "doi": "10.1002/fsn3.72042",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42375569/",
      "kind": "Human tolerance study",
      "design": "50 healthy Chinese adults randomized; 49 completed; 12 g twice daily or 18 g twice daily for 30 days; no zero-allulose control.",
      "summary": "At 24 or 36 g daily, gastrointestinal symptoms were reported as generally mild and transient, most often early in use. The paper reports symptoms in 48% overall, with no significant difference between dose groups and measured laboratory changes remaining within clinical reference ranges.",
      "journal": "Food science & nutrition"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Allulose",
      "number": 15,
      "pmid": "29317623",
      "title": "GLP-1 release and vagal afferent activation mediate the beneficial metabolic and chronotherapeutic effects of D-allulose.",
      "authors": "Iwasaki Y, Sendo M, Dezaki K, Hira T, Sato T, Nakata M, Goswami C, Aoki R, Arai T, Kumari P, Hayakawa M, Masuda C, Okada T, Hara H, Drucker DJ, Yamada Y, Tokuda M, Yada T.",
      "year": "2018",
      "doi": "10.1038/s41467-017-02488-y",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29317623/",
      "kind": "Animal and mechanism study",
      "design": "Rodent experiments using oral allulose, vagotomy and genetic or pharmacological GLP-1 receptor interference.",
      "summary": "Allulose stimulated GLP-1 release and vagal signaling, reduced food intake and improved glucose handling in animal models. Interrupting GLP-1 receptor signaling or the vagus weakened these effects.",
      "journal": "Nature communications"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Allulose",
      "number": 16,
      "pmid": "29402406",
      "title": "Secretion of GLP-1 but not GIP is potently stimulated by luminal d-Allulose (d-Psicose) in rats.",
      "authors": "Hayakawa M, Hira T, Nakamura M, Iida T, Kishimoto Y, Hara H.",
      "year": "2018",
      "doi": "10.1016/j.bbrc.2018.01.128",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29402406/",
      "kind": "Animal and mechanism study",
      "design": "Rats; oral 0.5–2 g/kg and direct intestinal administration with transport or receptor inhibitors.",
      "summary": "Allulose increased GLP-1 after intestinal exposure, with evidence implicating intestinal transport-related processes. A sweet-receptor inhibitor did not abolish the response.",
      "journal": "Biochemical and biophysical research communications"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Allulose",
      "number": 17,
      "pmid": "39821080",
      "title": "Intestinal Distension Induced by Luminal D-allulose Promotes GLP-1 Secretion in Male Rats.",
      "authors": "Mizuma S, Hayakawa M, Hira T.",
      "year": "2025",
      "doi": "10.1210/endocr/bqaf002",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39821080/",
      "kind": "Animal and mechanism study",
      "design": "Male rats; luminal allulose and experiments manipulating intestinal contents and distension.",
      "summary": "Intestinal expansion correlated with GLP-1 secretion, and physical distension itself also triggered a response. The authors proposed distension as one contributor to allulose-induced GLP-1 release.",
      "journal": "Endocrinology"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Allulose",
      "number": 18,
      "pmid": "42062836",
      "title": "Gut-Derived GLP-1 Released by Rare Sugar d-Allulose Cooperates With Insulin to Activate Left-Sided Vagal Afferents and Enhance Insulin Sensitivity.",
      "authors": "Ohbayashi K, Tanida M, Abe C, Ishihara H, Omi W, Kubota N, Drucker DJ, Yada T, Iwasaki Y.",
      "year": "2026",
      "doi": "10.2337/db25-1134",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42062836/",
      "kind": "Animal and mechanism study",
      "design": "Male mice; allulose-induced GLP-1, insulin and selective vagal-pathway experiments.",
      "summary": "A 2026 study found that intestinal GLP-1 released after allulose cooperated with insulin through left-sided vagal afferents to improve insulin action. This illustrates how local gut–nerve signaling may matter even when circulating active GLP-1 is short-lived.",
      "journal": "Diabetes"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Allulose",
      "number": 19,
      "pmid": "41751787",
      "title": "GLP-1 Release by Rare Sugar D-Allulose Ameliorates Sucrose-Induced Obesity and Glucose Intolerance in Ovariectomized Mice.",
      "authors": "Iba K, Kyo M, Ishihara H, Nagao A, Kawabe M, Ohbayashi K, Yada T, Iwasaki Y.",
      "year": "2026",
      "doi": "10.3390/ijms27041651",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41751787/",
      "kind": "Animal and mechanism study",
      "design": "Ovariectomized female mice exposed to sucrose; oral allulose for two weeks; GLP-1 receptor knockout comparison.",
      "summary": "Allulose reduced visceral-fat accumulation and improved glucose-related outcomes in this model of estrogen deficiency. Benefits were weakened when GLP-1 receptor signaling was absent.",
      "journal": "International journal of molecular sciences"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Allulose",
      "number": 20,
      "pmid": "40218979",
      "title": "Abilities of Rare Sugar Members to Release Glucagon-like Peptide-1 and Suppress Food Intake in Mice.",
      "authors": "Masuda Y, Ohbayashi K, Iba K, Kitano R, Kimura T, Yamada T, Hira T, Yada T, Iwasaki Y.",
      "year": "2025",
      "doi": "10.3390/nu17071221",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40218979/",
      "kind": "Animal and mechanism study",
      "design": "Male mice; rare sugars at 1 or 3 g/kg with GLP-1 receptor antagonism.",
      "summary": "Several ketohexose sugars, including allulose, increased GLP-1 and reduced short-term feeding. Blocking GLP-1 receptors weakened feeding effects, supporting a causal hormone pathway in this model.",
      "journal": "Nutrients"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Allulose",
      "number": 21,
      "pmid": "38931176",
      "title": "The Metabolic and Endocrine Effects of a 12-Week Allulose-Rich Diet.",
      "authors": "Cayabyab KB, Shin MJ, Heimuli MS, Kim IJ, D'Agostino DP, Johnson RJ, Koutnik AP, Bellissimo N, Diamond DM, Norwitz NG, Arroyo JA, Reynolds PR, Bikman BT.",
      "year": "2024",
      "doi": "10.3390/nu16121821",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38931176/",
      "kind": "Animal and mechanism study",
      "design": "Rats; allulose-rich diet for 12 weeks in a model of dietary excess.",
      "summary": "Allulose reduced food consumption and weight gain while increasing GLP-1 and improving several metabolic markers. The experiment also identified liver and adipose-tissue changes.",
      "journal": "Nutrients"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Allulose",
      "number": 22,
      "pmid": "41985675",
      "title": "Glycemic and cardiometabolic effects of rare sugars allulose and tagatose: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled human intervention trials.",
      "authors": "Osborn L, DuPuis K, Liu S, Della Corte D, Della Corte KA.",
      "year": "2026",
      "doi": "10.1016/j.ajcnut.2026.101314",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41985675/",
      "kind": "Systematic review",
      "design": "2026 review; 20 trials total, of which 12 studied allulose and eight tagatose; search through April 2025.",
      "summary": "Pooled allulose results supported lower post-meal glucose and insulin responses with moderate certainty. The review did not find significant pooled improvements in fasting glucose, HbA1c, lipids or body composition.",
      "journal": "The American journal of clinical nutrition"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Allulose",
      "number": 23,
      "pmid": "37023000",
      "title": "Allulose for the attenuation of postprandial blood glucose levels in healthy humans: A systematic review and meta-analysis.",
      "authors": "Tani Y, Tokuda M, Nishimoto N, Yokoi H, Izumori K.",
      "year": "2023",
      "doi": "10.1371/journal.pone.0281150",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37023000/",
      "kind": "Systematic review",
      "design": "2023 review and meta-analysis of acute post-meal glucose studies in healthy people.",
      "summary": "The analysis found lower post-meal glucose exposure with both 5 g and 10 g allulose. It supports a benefit at small doses in acute meal studies.",
      "journal": "PloS one"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Allulose",
      "number": 24,
      "pmid": "39583955",
      "title": "Impact of allulose on blood glucose in type 2 diabetes: A meta-analysis of clinical trials.",
      "authors": "Ayesh H, Suhail S, Ayesh S.",
      "year": "2024",
      "doi": "10.1016/j.metop.2024.100329",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39583955/",
      "kind": "Systematic review",
      "design": "2024 meta-analysis reporting six studies and 126 participants in a diabetes-focused evidence set.",
      "summary": "The pooled analysis found lower post-meal glucose exposure and time above glucose range, but no significant improvement in fasting glucose, insulin exposure or time in range. Results favor an acute post-meal glucose claim over a broad claim of metabolic normalization.",
      "journal": "Metabolism open"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Butyrate",
      "number": 25,
      "pmid": null,
      "title": "A Pharmacokinetic Comparison of Three Butyrate Products",
      "authors": "La Monica M, Kirby T, Hartshorn S, Gustat A, Grdic J, Sandrock J.",
      "year": "2025",
      "doi": "10.53520/jen2025.103189",
      "url": "https://www.journalofexerciseandnutrition.com/index.php/JEN/article/view/189",
      "kind": "Human pharmacokinetic trial",
      "design": "10 healthy men; randomized crossover; lysine butyrate, sodium butyrate and tributyrin, each providing 786 mg butyric acid.",
      "summary": "Lysine and sodium butyrate produced greater systemic exposure and earlier peak concentrations than tributyrin. The mean lysine-butyrate peak occurred at the first post-dose sample, 20 minutes.",
      "journal": "Journal of Exercise and Nutrition"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Butyrate",
      "number": 26,
      "pmid": "28962046",
      "title": "Effect of Butyrate and Inulin Supplementation on Glycemic Status, Lipid Profile and Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 Level in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes: A Randomized Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial.",
      "authors": "Roshanravan N, Mahdavi R, Alizadeh E, Jafarabadi MA, Hedayati M, Ghavami A, Alipour S, Alamdari NM, Barati M, Ostadrahimi A.",
      "year": "2017",
      "doi": "10.1055/s-0043-119089",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28962046/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "60 adults with type 2 diabetes; four groups; sodium butyrate, inulin, both or placebo for 45 days.",
      "summary": "Sodium butyrate alone and the butyrate–inulin combination increased GLP-1 compared with placebo. Several other changes were confined to combination treatment or comparisons within a group.",
      "journal": "Hormone and metabolic research = Hormon- und Stoffwechselforschung = Hormones et metabolisme"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Butyrate",
      "number": 27,
      "pmid": "39448815",
      "title": "Expression of PGC-1α, PPAR-α and UCP1 genes, metabolic and anthropometric factors in response to sodium butyrate supplementation in patients with obesity: a triple-blind, randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial.",
      "authors": "Amiri P, Hosseini SA, Saghafi-Asl M, Roshanravan N, Tootoonchian M.",
      "year": "2025",
      "doi": "10.1038/s41430-024-01512-x",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39448815/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "50 adults with obesity; randomized trial; 600 mg sodium butyrate daily plus calorie restriction versus placebo plus the same diet for eight weeks.",
      "summary": "The trial reported favorable metabolic and anthropometric changes alongside altered expression of energy-metabolism genes. Serum GLP-1 did not significantly change.",
      "journal": "European journal of clinical nutrition"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Butyrate",
      "number": 28,
      "pmid": "41880673",
      "title": "Targeting weight loss and blood glucose control with oral sodium butyrate in overweight/obese adults with and without type 2 diabetes: A proof-of-concept randomized controlled trial.",
      "authors": "Testa R, Vitale M, Giosuè A, Salamone D, Quaglia C, Rivellese AA, Bozzetto L, Costabile G.",
      "year": "2026",
      "doi": "10.1016/j.clnu.2026.106624",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41880673/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "46 adults, including 23 with type 2 diabetes; 1,875 mg sodium butyrate daily or placebo, with the same reduced-energy diet for 12 weeks.",
      "summary": "In participants without diabetes, butyrate produced greater weight loss than placebo; in those with diabetes, weight changes were similar but triglycerides and a continuous-glucose-monitoring measure improved. The 2026 results suggest that benefits can depend on metabolic status.",
      "journal": "Clinical nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland)"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Butyrate",
      "number": 29,
      "pmid": "40620126",
      "title": "The effect of oral l-arginine alone or in combination with sodium butyrate on glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion in non-diabetic adults with obesity.",
      "authors": "Nakhleh A, Said W, Hadad S, Zolotov S, Shehadeh N.",
      "year": "2026",
      "doi": "10.1177/02601060251356584",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40620126/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "Seven adults with obesity; three intervention visits; L-arginine alone, L-arginine plus sodium butyrate or no intervention before a standard meal.",
      "summary": "The combination increased circulating GLP-1 relative to no intervention, while subjective hunger and fullness did not significantly change. The experiment was small and did not isolate butyrate’s contribution.",
      "journal": "Nutrition and health"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Butyrate",
      "number": 30,
      "pmid": "42575284",
      "title": "Small intestinal compared with colonic short-chain fatty acid delivery drives distinct systemic concentrations and endocrine responses in humans: a randomized, crossover trial.",
      "authors": "Rosseel R, Vandermeulen G, Dehau T, Verbeke K.",
      "year": "2026",
      "doi": "10.1016/j.ajcnut.2026.101470",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42575284/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "28 healthy adults; randomized crossover; a 230 mmol short-chain-fatty-acid mixture targeted to the small intestine or colon versus placebo.",
      "summary": "Hormone and appetite responses differed by delivery site, with greater PYY after colonic delivery and greater GLP-1 after small-intestinal delivery. Both delivery conditions reduced reported appetite, more so with small-intestinal delivery.",
      "journal": "The American journal of clinical nutrition"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Butyrate",
      "number": 31,
      "pmid": "28539646",
      "title": "Colonic infusions of short-chain fatty acid mixtures promote energy metabolism in overweight/obese men: a randomized crossover trial.",
      "authors": "Canfora EE, van der Beek CM, Jocken JWE, Goossens GH, Holst JJ, Olde Damink SWM, Lenaerts K, Dejong CHC, Blaak EE.",
      "year": "2017",
      "doi": "10.1038/s41598-017-02546-x",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28539646/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "12 overweight or obese men; randomized crossover; rectal infusions of SCFA mixtures enriched in acetate, propionate or butyrate.",
      "summary": "The SCFA mixtures increased PYY and fat oxidation compared with placebo. Some energy-expenditure effects depended on the mixture used.",
      "journal": "Scientific reports"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Butyrate",
      "number": 32,
      "pmid": "29799027",
      "title": "Differential metabolic effects of oral butyrate treatment in lean versus metabolic syndrome subjects.",
      "authors": "Bouter K, Bakker GJ, Levin E, Hartstra AV, Kootte RS, Udayappan SD, Katiraei S, Bahler L, Gilijamse PW, Tremaroli V, Stahlman M, Holleman F, van Riel NAW, Verberne HJ, Romijn JA, Dallinga-Thie GM, Serlie MJ, Ackermans MT, Kemper EM, Willems van Dijk K, Backhed F, Groen AK, Nieuwdorp M.",
      "year": "2018",
      "doi": "10.1038/s41424-018-0025-4",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29799027/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "Nine lean men and 10 men with metabolic syndrome; 4 g sodium butyrate daily for four weeks; before–after pilot.",
      "summary": "Insulin sensitivity improved in lean participants but not in those with metabolic syndrome. Brown-fat activity did not significantly increase in either group.",
      "journal": "Clinical and translational gastroenterology"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Butyrate",
      "number": 33,
      "pmid": "36469320",
      "title": "Therapeutic Effects of Butyrate on Pediatric Obesity: A Randomized Clinical Trial.",
      "authors": "Coppola S, Nocerino R, Paparo L, Bedogni G, Calignano A, Di Scala C, de Giovanni di Santa Severina AF, De Filippis F, Ercolini D, Berni Canani R.",
      "year": "2022",
      "doi": "10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.44912",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36469320/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "54 children with obesity; randomized placebo-controlled trial; sodium butyrate 20 mg/kg/day plus standard care for six months.",
      "summary": "More children receiving butyrate achieved the prespecified BMI improvement than children receiving placebo. Several secondary metabolic and waist measures also improved, with transient mild nausea or headache reported in two treated participants.",
      "journal": "JAMA network open"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Butyrate",
      "number": 34,
      "pmid": "40167641",
      "title": "Butyrate improves handgrip strength and physical performance by reducing intestinal leak in post-menopausal women, a randomized controlled trial.",
      "authors": "Qaisar R, Zuhra H, Karim A, Ahmad F.",
      "year": "2025",
      "doi": "10.1007/s00394-025-03656-3",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40167641/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "146 postmenopausal women in placebo or butyrate groups, plus 75 premenopausal reference participants; 570 mg sodium butyrate daily for 12 weeks.",
      "summary": "Butyrate improved handgrip and physical-performance measures and reduced blood markers interpreted as related to intestinal barrier function. The authors linked these changes to a possible gut–muscle pathway.",
      "journal": "European journal of nutrition"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Butyrate",
      "number": 35,
      "pmid": "35806857",
      "title": "Effects of Butyrate Supplementation on Inflammation and Kidney Parameters in Type 1 Diabetes: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial.",
      "authors": "Tougaard NH, Frimodt-Møller M, Salmenkari H, Stougaard EB, Zawadzki AD, Mattila IM, Hansen TW, Legido-Quigley C, Hörkkö S, Forsblom C, Groop PH, Lehto M, Rossing P.",
      "year": "2022",
      "doi": "10.3390/jcm11133573",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35806857/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "53 people with type 1 diabetes, albuminuria and intestinal inflammation; 3.6 g sodium butyrate daily or placebo for 12 weeks.",
      "summary": "Butyrate did not significantly improve the primary intestinal-inflammation marker or the measured kidney, glycemic, inflammatory or gastrointestinal outcomes. This shows that promising mechanisms do not translate uniformly across clinical settings.",
      "journal": "Journal of clinical medicine"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Butyrate",
      "number": 36,
      "pmid": "23836895",
      "title": "Beneficial metabolic effects of a probiotic via butyrate-induced GLP-1 hormone secretion.",
      "authors": "Yadav H, Lee JH, Lloyd J, Walter P, Rane SG.",
      "year": "2013",
      "doi": "10.1074/jbc.m113.452516",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23836895/",
      "kind": "Animal and mechanism study",
      "design": "Mouse probiotic experiments plus cultured intestinal L cells exposed to butyrate.",
      "summary": "The probiotic intervention was associated with greater butyrate and GLP-1, and butyrate directly stimulated GLP-1 release in the cell experiments. This supports a plausible microbiota–metabolite–hormone pathway.",
      "journal": "The Journal of biological chemistry"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Butyrate",
      "number": 37,
      "pmid": "22190648",
      "title": "Short-chain fatty acids stimulate glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion via the G-protein-coupled receptor FFAR2.",
      "authors": "Tolhurst G, Heffron H, Lam YS, Parker HE, Habib AM, Diakogiannaki E, Cameron J, Grosse J, Reimann F, Gribble FM.",
      "year": "2012",
      "doi": "10.2337/db11-1019",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22190648/",
      "kind": "Animal and mechanism study",
      "design": "Primary intestinal cell cultures and mice lacking the SCFA receptors FFAR2 or FFAR3.",
      "summary": "Short-chain fatty acids stimulated GLP-1 release, and receptor disruption reduced this response. The findings support a receptor-mediated link between intestinal fermentation products and hormone secretion.",
      "journal": "Diabetes"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Butyrate",
      "number": 38,
      "pmid": "29101261",
      "title": "Butyrate reduces appetite and activates brown adipose tissue via the gut-brain neural circuit.",
      "authors": "Li Z, Yi CX, Katiraei S, Kooijman S, Zhou E, Chung CK, Gao Y, van den Heuvel JK, Meijer OC, Berbée JFP, Heijink M, Giera M, Willems van Dijk K, Groen AK, Rensen PCN, Wang Y.",
      "year": "2018",
      "doi": "10.1136/gutjnl-2017-314050",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29101261/",
      "kind": "Animal and mechanism study",
      "design": "Mice; oral versus intravenous butyrate, pair-feeding and vagotomy experiments.",
      "summary": "Oral butyrate reduced food intake and influenced brain pathways involved in feeding; interrupting the vagus abolished key effects. Chronic treatment also improved fat oxidation and brown-fat activity.",
      "journal": "Gut"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Butyrate",
      "number": 39,
      "pmid": "19625695",
      "title": "Butyrate enhances the intestinal barrier by facilitating tight junction assembly via activation of AMP-activated protein kinase in Caco-2 cell monolayers.",
      "authors": "Peng L, Li ZR, Green RS, Holzman IR, Lin J.",
      "year": "2009",
      "doi": "10.3945/jn.109.104638",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19625695/",
      "kind": "Animal and mechanism study",
      "design": "Caco-2 intestinal cell monolayers; butyrate exposure and AMPK-inhibition experiments.",
      "summary": "Butyrate increased barrier resistance and promoted tight-junction assembly through an AMPK-linked process. Blocking AMPK prevented key barrier effects.",
      "journal": "The Journal of nutrition"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Butyrate",
      "number": 40,
      "pmid": "19366864",
      "title": "Butyrate improves insulin sensitivity and increases energy expenditure in mice.",
      "authors": "Gao Z, Yin J, Zhang J, Ward RE, Martin RJ, Lefevre M, Cefalu WT, Ye J.",
      "year": "2009",
      "doi": "10.2337/db08-1637",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19366864/",
      "kind": "Animal and mechanism study",
      "design": "Diet-induced obese mice; sodium butyrate at 5% of the diet.",
      "summary": "Butyrate improved insulin sensitivity and energy expenditure and reduced adiposity in mice. In this experiment the prevention of obesity was not explained by lower food intake.",
      "journal": "Diabetes"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Butyrate",
      "number": 41,
      "pmid": "40557239",
      "title": "The impact of butyrate on glycemic control in animals and humans: a comprehensive semi-systemic review.",
      "authors": "Hamari N, Blaak EE, Canfora EE.",
      "year": "2025",
      "doi": "10.3389/fnut.2025.1603490",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40557239/",
      "kind": "Review",
      "design": "2025 semi-systematic review of animal and human butyrate research.",
      "summary": "The review describes strong mechanistic interest but uneven translation to humans because delivery, absorption, metabolism and baseline health differ. It calls for better human trials while recognizing multiple plausible metabolic pathways.",
      "journal": "Frontiers in nutrition"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Konjac glucomannan",
      "number": 42,
      "pmid": "32869813",
      "title": "In vitro gastric emptying characteristics of konjac glucomannan with different viscosity and its effects on appetite regulation.",
      "authors": "Shang L, Wang Y, Ren Y, Ai T, Zhou P, Hu L, Wang L, Li J, Li B.",
      "year": "2020",
      "doi": "10.1039/d0fo01104e",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32869813/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "22 healthy adults; randomized single-blind crossover breakfasts with different viscosities; separate simulated gastric-emptying experiments.",
      "summary": "Higher-viscosity breakfasts improved subjective hunger, fullness and desire-to-eat ratings and altered appetite-related hormone responses. Subsequent food intake changed only slightly.",
      "journal": "Food & function"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Konjac glucomannan",
      "number": 43,
      "pmid": "6096282",
      "title": "Effect of glucomannan on obese patients: a clinical study.",
      "authors": "Walsh DE, Yaghoubian V, Behforooz A.",
      "year": "1984",
      "doi": null,
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6096282/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "20 adults with obesity; double-blind eight-week study; 1 g glucomannan with water before each of three meals daily.",
      "summary": "The study reported weight loss and lower cholesterol measures in the glucomannan group without requested changes to eating or exercise. It is an early positive clinical study of a pre-meal fiber regimen.",
      "journal": "International journal of obesity"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Konjac glucomannan",
      "number": 44,
      "pmid": "24490058",
      "title": "Safety and efficacy of glucomannan for weight loss in overweight and moderately obese adults.",
      "authors": "Keithley JK, Swanson B, Mikolaitis SL, DeMeo M, Zeller JM, Fogg L, Adamji J.",
      "year": "2013",
      "doi": "10.1155/2013/610908",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24490058/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "53 overweight or moderately obese adults; randomized trial; 1.33 g before each of three meals, with water, for eight weeks.",
      "summary": "Glucomannan did not outperform placebo for weight, body composition, hunger, fullness, glucose or lipids. The investigators found the regimen generally tolerable.",
      "journal": "Journal of obesity"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Konjac glucomannan",
      "number": 45,
      "pmid": "29202887",
      "title": "The effects of gelled konjac glucomannan fibre on appetite and energy intake in healthy individuals: a randomised cross-over trial.",
      "authors": "Au-Yeung F, Jovanovski E, Jenkins AL, Zurbau A, Ho HVT, Vuksan V.",
      "year": "2018",
      "doi": "10.1017/s0007114517003233",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29202887/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "16 healthy adults; randomized crossover; pasta partially or fully replaced with volume-matched konjac-gel noodles.",
      "summary": "Replacing pasta with low-energy konjac noodles reduced total energy intake without increased intake at the subsequent dessert. Full replacement produced more hunger than pasta, so the result primarily supports food substitution rather than stronger satiety.",
      "journal": "The British journal of nutrition"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Konjac glucomannan",
      "number": 46,
      "pmid": "10372241",
      "title": "Konjac-mannan (glucomannan) improves glycemia and other associated risk factors for coronary heart disease in type 2 diabetes. A randomized controlled metabolic trial.",
      "authors": "Vuksan V, Jenkins DJ, Spadafora P, Sievenpiper JL, Owen R, Vidgen E, Brighenti F, Josse R, Leiter LA, Bruce-Thompson C.",
      "year": "1999",
      "doi": "10.2337/diacare.22.6.913",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10372241/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "11 adults with type 2 diabetes and other cardiometabolic risk factors; controlled crossover diets with konjac-enriched or wheat-bran biscuits.",
      "summary": "Konjac biscuits improved fructosamine, the total-to-HDL cholesterol ratio and systolic blood pressure versus comparator. Several other outcomes, including weight, did not remain significant after statistical adjustment.",
      "journal": "Diabetes care"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Konjac glucomannan",
      "number": 47,
      "pmid": "40490608",
      "title": "Impact of a mineral enriched, fiber complex on glycaemic response and satiation in healthy adults: a double-blind, crossover intervention study.",
      "authors": "Ancu O, Mackenzie RWA, Patterson M, Dsilva E, Yakubov GE, Haynes M, Kolida S, Stephenson CG, Costabile A.",
      "year": "2025",
      "doi": "10.1007/s00394-025-03732-8",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40490608/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "16 healthy adults; randomized crossover; 3 g chromium–glucomannan–fructooligosaccharide complex with 50 g dextrose.",
      "summary": "The complex reduced insulin at several time points and improved selected fullness and hunger ratings. The study also documented greater mixture viscosity.",
      "journal": "European journal of nutrition"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Konjac glucomannan",
      "number": 48,
      "pmid": "24319546",
      "title": "Appetite control and gastrointestinal hormonal behavior (CCK, GLP-1, PYY 1-36) following low doses of a whey protein-rich nutraceutic.",
      "authors": "Sukkar SG, Vaccaro A, Ravera GB, Borrini C, Gradaschi R, Massa Sacchi-Nemours A, Cordera R, Andraghetti G.",
      "year": "2013",
      "doi": "10.1007/s12349-013-0121-7",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24319546/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "Five healthy volunteers; crossover comparison of 8 g whey versus 8 g casein, each with 1 g glucomannan.",
      "summary": "The whey-containing mixture reduced desire to eat and increased GLP-1 at selected time points. With glucomannan in both conditions, the study cannot isolate its contribution.",
      "journal": "Mediterranean journal of nutrition and metabolism"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Konjac glucomannan",
      "number": 49,
      "pmid": "40352303",
      "title": "Effects of Yogurt Enriched with Konjac Glucomannan and Inulin on Insulin Sensitivity, Glycemic Control, Lipid Profiles, Anthropometric Measures and Oxidative Stress in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Randomized Controlled Trial.",
      "authors": "Dehzad MJ, Raja A, Moghdani Z, Sohrabi Z, Fararooei M, Famouri M, Askarpour M, Babajafari S.",
      "year": "2025",
      "doi": "10.3746/pnf.2025.30.2.120",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40352303/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "80 adults with type 2 diabetes; 1.5 g glucomannan plus 1.5 g inulin in yogurt daily versus plain yogurt for eight weeks.",
      "summary": "The enriched yogurt improved insulin-sensitivity indices and some lipid measures. This supports further research on fiber combinations in metabolic health.",
      "journal": "Preventive nutrition and food science"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Konjac glucomannan",
      "number": 50,
      "pmid": "42369710",
      "title": "[The Effect of Konjac Glucomannan on Blood Glucose and Insulin Levels in Obese Patients With Prediabetes].",
      "authors": "Wu R, Tang L, Yang X, Ou Q, Gu Y, Yuan L, Tong N.",
      "year": "2026",
      "doi": "10.12182/20260560508",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42369710/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "102 adults with obesity and prediabetes; 79 completed; diet and exercise with or without 60 g/day konjac-based fiber biscuits for three months.",
      "summary": "The biscuit group achieved better fasting-glucose control and selected insulin and body-size outcomes, but not all post-meal or weight-related measures improved. Gastrointestinal events included two cases of severe discomfort that resolved after discontinuation.",
      "journal": "Sichuan da xue xue bao. Yi xue ban = Journal of Sichuan University. Medical science edition"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Konjac glucomannan",
      "number": 51,
      "pmid": "38398881",
      "title": "The Impact of Glucomannan, Inulin, and Psyllium Supplementation (SolowaysTM) on Weight Loss in Adults with FTO, LEP, LEPR, and MC4R Polymorphisms: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial.",
      "authors": "Pokushalov E, Ponomarenko A, Garcia C, Pak I, Shrainer E, Seryakova M, Johnson M, Miller R.",
      "year": "2024",
      "doi": "10.3390/nu16040557",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38398881/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "112 adults with obesity and selected genetic variants; glucomannan–inulin–psyllium blend versus placebo for 180 days.",
      "summary": "The fiber combination reduced weight and adiposity measures compared with placebo. Gastrointestinal events were common in the intervention group.",
      "journal": "Nutrients"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Konjac glucomannan",
      "number": 52,
      "pmid": "39385065",
      "title": "The effect of glucomannan supplementation on lipid profile in adults: a GRADE-assessed systematic review and meta-analysis.",
      "authors": "Musazadeh V, Rostami RY, Moridpour AH, Hosseini ZB, Nikpayam O, Falahatzadeh M, Faghfouri AH.",
      "year": "2024",
      "doi": "10.1186/s12872-024-04223-0",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39385065/",
      "kind": "Systematic review",
      "design": "2024 GRADE-assessed meta-analysis of adult randomized trials; search through June 2024.",
      "summary": "Glucomannan lowered pooled total and LDL cholesterol, but several other lipid measures did not improve. Very high heterogeneity indicates substantial differences among study results.",
      "journal": "BMC cardiovascular disorders"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Konjac glucomannan",
      "number": 53,
      "pmid": "36771306",
      "title": "Effects of Glucomannan Supplementation on Type II Diabetes Mellitus in Humans: A Meta-Analysis.",
      "authors": "Zhang Z, Zhang Y, Tao X, Wang Y, Rao B, Shi H.",
      "year": "2023",
      "doi": "10.3390/nu15030601",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36771306/",
      "kind": "Systematic review",
      "design": "Six randomized trials involving 440 participants with type 2 diabetes.",
      "summary": "Pooled results favored glucomannan for several glucose and lipid measures. The findings are specific to diabetes-focused trials and their tested regimens.",
      "journal": "Nutrients"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Konjac glucomannan",
      "number": 54,
      "pmid": "35673426",
      "title": "The effect of Glucomannan on fasting and postprandial blood glucose in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.",
      "authors": "Mirzababaei A, Zandkarimi R, Moradi S, Rasaei N, Amini MR, Pourreza S, Abaj F, Clark CCT, Daneshzad E, Mirzaei K.",
      "year": "2022",
      "doi": "10.1007/s40200-022-00993-6",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35673426/",
      "kind": "Systematic review",
      "design": "Six adult randomized trials with 124 participants; glucose outcomes.",
      "summary": "The review found a reduction in fasting glucose but no statistically significant pooled reduction in post-meal glucose. The fasting-glucose effect was clearer in the diabetes subgroup.",
      "journal": "Journal of diabetes and metabolic disorders"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "African mango",
      "number": 55,
      "pmid": "19254366",
      "title": "IGOB131, a novel seed extract of the West African plant Irvingia gabonensis, significantly reduces body weight and improves metabolic parameters in overweight humans in a randomized double-blind placebo controlled investigation.",
      "authors": "Ngondi JL, Etoundi BC, Nyangono CB, Mbofung CM, Oben JE.",
      "year": "2009",
      "doi": "10.1186/1476-511x-8-7",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19254366/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "102 overweight or obese adults; randomized double-blind study; IGOB131 extract 150 mg twice daily before meals for 10 weeks.",
      "summary": "IGOB131 improved weight, waist and body-fat measures as well as several metabolic markers compared with placebo. This is an important positive study of a specific African-mango seed extract.",
      "journal": "Lipids in health and disease"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "African mango",
      "number": 56,
      "pmid": "15916709",
      "title": "The effect of Irvingia gabonensis seeds on body weight and blood lipids of obese subjects in Cameroon.",
      "authors": "Ngondi JL, Oben JE, Minka SR.",
      "year": "2005",
      "doi": "10.1186/1476-511x-4-12",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15916709/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "40 adults with obesity; 28 active and 12 placebo; seed preparation 1.05 g three times daily for one month.",
      "summary": "The active group lost more weight than placebo and showed favorable changes in blood lipids. The study supports early clinical interest in African-mango seed preparations.",
      "journal": "Lipids in health and disease"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "African mango",
      "number": 57,
      "pmid": "29336718",
      "title": "Effect of Irvingia gabonensis on Metabolic Syndrome, Insulin Sensitivity, and Insulin Secretion.",
      "authors": "Méndez-Del Villar M, González-Ortiz M, Martínez-Abundis E, Pérez-Rubio KG, Cortez-Navarrete M.",
      "year": "2018",
      "doi": "10.1089/jmf.2017.0092",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29336718/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "24 adults with metabolic syndrome; 150 mg extract twice daily or placebo for 90 days.",
      "summary": "The treated group showed improvements in waist and several glucose or lipid measures, and more participants met criteria for metabolic-syndrome remission than with placebo. Several numerical results in the abstract are within-group comparisons.",
      "journal": "Journal of medicinal food"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "African mango",
      "number": 58,
      "pmid": "36364907",
      "title": "Effects of Irvingia gabonensis Extract on Metabolism, Antioxidants, Adipocytokines, Telomere Length, and Aerobic Capacity in Overweight/Obese Individuals.",
      "authors": "Nonsa-Ard R, Aneknan P, Tong-Un T, Honsawek S, Leelayuwat N.",
      "year": "2022",
      "doi": "10.3390/nu14214646",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36364907/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "Overweight or obese adults; observation phase followed by randomized 300 mg extract daily or placebo for 12 weeks.",
      "summary": "The extract increased vitamin C and adiponectin at selected time points but did not improve the broader metabolic, adiposity, inflammation or fitness outcomes versus placebo. This limits claims of consistent weight-loss efficacy.",
      "journal": "Nutrients"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "African mango",
      "number": 59,
      "pmid": "18377661",
      "title": "The use of a Cissus quadrangularis/Irvingia gabonensis combination in the management of weight loss: a double-blind placebo-controlled study.",
      "authors": "Oben JE, Ngondi JL, Momo CN, Agbor GA, Sobgui CS.",
      "year": "2008",
      "doi": "10.1186/1476-511x-7-12",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18377661/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "72 overweight or obese adults; placebo, Cissus alone or Cissus plus Irvingia for 10 weeks.",
      "summary": "Both active groups improved several weight and metabolic measures, with larger changes in the combination group. The design does not provide an Irvingia-only comparison.",
      "journal": "Lipids in health and disease"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "African mango",
      "number": 60,
      "pmid": "19014517",
      "title": "Inhibition of Irvingia gabonensis seed extract (OB131) on adipogenesis as mediated via down regulation of the PPARgamma and leptin genes and up-regulation of the adiponectin gene.",
      "authors": "Oben JE, Ngondi JL, Blum K.",
      "year": "2008",
      "doi": "10.1186/1476-511x-7-44",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19014517/",
      "kind": "Animal and mechanism study",
      "design": "Murine 3T3-L1 adipocytes exposed to IGOB131 extract in culture.",
      "summary": "The extract reduced fat-cell development and altered expression of PPAR-gamma, leptin and adiponectin. These findings offer a mechanistic explanation worth testing in humans.",
      "journal": "Lipids in health and disease"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "African mango",
      "number": 61,
      "pmid": "35204821",
      "title": "Terminalin from African Mango (Irvingia gabonensis) Stimulates Glucose Uptake through Inhibition of Protein Tyrosine Phosphatases.",
      "authors": "Yoon SY, Kim J, Lee BS, Baek SC, Chung SJ, Kim KH.",
      "year": "2022",
      "doi": "10.3390/biom12020321",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35204821/",
      "kind": "Animal and mechanism study",
      "design": "Isolated terminalin from African-mango seeds; enzyme assays and cultured muscle cells.",
      "summary": "Terminalin inhibited several protein tyrosine phosphatases and increased glucose uptake in muscle cells. The work identifies a possible insulin-signaling-related mechanism.",
      "journal": "Biomolecules"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "African mango",
      "number": 62,
      "pmid": "31855111",
      "title": "The Effects of Irvingia gabonensis Seed Extract Supplementation on Anthropometric and Cardiovascular Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.",
      "authors": "Lee J, Chung M, Fu Z, Choi J, Lee HJ.",
      "year": "2020",
      "doi": "10.1080/07315724.2019.1691956",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31855111/",
      "kind": "Systematic review",
      "design": "Five randomized trials; four rated high risk of bias and one low risk.",
      "summary": "Pooled weight and lipid results favored African-mango extracts, but trial quality weakened confidence. The one low-risk trial did not show statistically significant outcome differences.",
      "journal": "Journal of the American College of Nutrition"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "African mango",
      "number": 63,
      "pmid": "23419021",
      "title": "The efficacy of Irvingia gabonensis supplementation in the management of overweight and obesity: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials.",
      "authors": "Onakpoya I, Davies L, Posadzki P, Ernst E.",
      "year": "2013",
      "doi": "10.3109/19390211.2012.760508",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23419021/",
      "kind": "Systematic review",
      "design": "2013 review of three randomized trials.",
      "summary": "All three trials reported favorable weight or waist results, but poor reporting and limited evidence prevented firm conclusions. The reviewers did not consider efficacy established.",
      "journal": "Journal of dietary supplements"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Ursolic acid",
      "number": 64,
      "pmid": "28598231",
      "title": "Effect of Ursolic Acid on Metabolic Syndrome, Insulin Sensitivity, and Inflammation.",
      "authors": "Ramírez-Rodríguez AM, González-Ortiz M, Martínez-Abundis E, Acuña Ortega N.",
      "year": "2017",
      "doi": "10.1089/jmf.2017.0003",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28598231/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "24 adults with untreated metabolic syndrome; 150 mg ursolic acid daily or placebo for 12 weeks.",
      "summary": "The ursolic-acid group showed improvements in weight, waist, fasting glucose and insulin sensitivity. This small trial provides a positive human signal for metabolic research.",
      "journal": "Journal of medicinal food"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Ursolic acid",
      "number": 65,
      "pmid": "25352765",
      "title": "Ursolic Acid-induced elevation of serum irisin augments muscle strength during resistance training in men.",
      "authors": "Bang HS, Seo DY, Chung YM, Oh KM, Park JJ, Arturo F, Jeong SH, Kim N, Han J.",
      "year": "2014",
      "doi": "10.4196/kjpp.2014.18.5.441",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25352765/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "16 men; resistance training with or without 450 mg/day ursolic acid for eight weeks.",
      "summary": "The ursolic-acid group showed favorable body-fat, strength and selected hormone changes from baseline. Lean mass did not significantly increase.",
      "journal": "The Korean journal of physiology & pharmacology : official journal of the Korean Physiological Society and the Korean Society of Pharmacology"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Ursolic acid",
      "number": 66,
      "pmid": "29200908",
      "title": "Ursolic acid supplementation decreases markers of skeletal muscle damage during resistance training in resistance-trained men: a pilot study.",
      "authors": "Bang HS, Seo DY, Chung YM, Kim DH, Lee SJ, Lee SR, Kwak HB, Kim TN, Kim M, Oh KM, Son YJ, Kim S, Han J.",
      "year": "2017",
      "doi": "10.4196/kjpp.2017.21.6.651",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29200908/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "16 resistance-trained men; 450 mg/day ursolic acid or control during eight weeks of training.",
      "summary": "Several muscle-damage markers decreased with ursolic acid, while body-composition changes were not statistically significant. The findings suggest a possible exercise-recovery research direction.",
      "journal": "The Korean journal of physiology & pharmacology : official journal of the Korean Physiological Society and the Korean Society of Pharmacology"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Ursolic acid",
      "number": 67,
      "pmid": "32593524",
      "title": "Ursolic acid has no additional effect on muscle strength and mass in active men undergoing a high-protein diet and resistance training: A double-blind and placebo-controlled trial.",
      "authors": "Lobo PCB, Vieira IP, Pichard C, Marques BS, Gentil P, da Silva EL, Pimentel GD.",
      "year": "2021",
      "doi": "10.1016/j.clnu.2020.06.004",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32593524/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "22 active men; 400 mg/day ursolic acid or placebo with resistance training and a high-protein diet for eight weeks.",
      "summary": "Both groups gained strength and muscle during training, but ursolic acid provided no additional benefit. This challenges a broad claim that ursolic acid reliably builds or preserves muscle in humans.",
      "journal": "Clinical nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland)"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Ursolic acid",
      "number": 68,
      "pmid": "22745735",
      "title": "Ursolic acid increases skeletal muscle and brown fat and decreases diet-induced obesity, glucose intolerance and fatty liver disease.",
      "authors": "Kunkel SD, Elmore CJ, Bongers KS, Ebert SM, Fox DK, Dyle MC, Bullard SA, Adams CM.",
      "year": "2012",
      "doi": "10.1371/journal.pone.0039332",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22745735/",
      "kind": "Animal and mechanism study",
      "design": "High-fat-fed mice receiving a diet with ursolic acid.",
      "summary": "Ursolic acid increased muscle Akt signaling, muscle and brown-fat measures, and energy expenditure while improving obesity-related outcomes. The work provides a biological rationale for metabolic and muscle research.",
      "journal": "PloS one"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Ursolic acid",
      "number": 69,
      "pmid": "25944715",
      "title": "Ursolic acid increases energy expenditure through enhancing free fatty acid uptake and β-oxidation via an UCP3/AMPK-dependent pathway in skeletal muscle.",
      "authors": "Chu X, He X, Shi Z, Li C, Guo F, Li S, Li Y, Na L, Sun C.",
      "year": "2015",
      "doi": "10.1002/mnfr.201400670",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25944715/",
      "kind": "Animal and mechanism study",
      "design": "Diet-induced obese rats receiving 0.5% ursolic acid for six weeks, plus cell experiments.",
      "summary": "Ursolic acid increased fatty-acid uptake and oxidation through an UCP3/AMPK-linked pathway. The animal experiments also showed lower weight and altered muscle lipid metabolism.",
      "journal": "Molecular nutrition & food research"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Ursolic acid",
      "number": 70,
      "pmid": "41097235",
      "title": "Muscle Strength, Lipid Metabolism and Hepatic Steatosis Are Improved with Ursolic Acid Treatment in High-Fat Diet-Induced Obese Mice.",
      "authors": "Kang D, Cao L.",
      "year": "2025",
      "doi": "10.3390/nu17193158",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41097235/",
      "kind": "Animal and mechanism study",
      "design": "Male mice with diet-induced obesity; oral ursolic acid treatment for six weeks after obesity induction.",
      "summary": "The 2025 study reported improved strength, muscle and lipid measures and less liver fat. It extends the animal evidence for metabolic and muscle-related effects.",
      "journal": "Nutrients"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Ursolic acid",
      "number": 71,
      "pmid": "38923885",
      "title": "The effects of ursolic acid on cardiometabolic risk factors: a systematic review and meta-analysis.",
      "authors": "Rafiee P, Rasaei N, Amini MR, Rabiee R, Kalantar Z, Sheikhhossein F, Gholizadeh M, Hekmatdoost A.",
      "year": "2024",
      "doi": "10.1080/14796678.2024.2349476",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38923885/",
      "kind": "Systematic review",
      "design": "Six articles; adult doses 50.94–450 mg/day; search through February 2023.",
      "summary": "The meta-analysis did not find significant pooled improvements in body size, body composition, glucose, insulin, blood pressure or the reported lipid outcomes. Human cardiometabolic efficacy remains uncertain despite favorable mechanisms and some small trials.",
      "journal": "Future cardiology"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Chromium",
      "number": 72,
      "pmid": "18715218",
      "title": "Effects of chromium picolinate on food intake and satiety.",
      "authors": "Anton SD, Morrison CD, Cefalu WT, Martin CK, Coulon S, Geiselman P, Han H, White CL, Williamson DA.",
      "year": "2008",
      "doi": "10.1089/dia.2007.0292",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18715218/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "42 overweight women reporting carbohydrate cravings; 1,000 mcg elemental chromium as picolinate daily versus placebo for eight weeks; 40 analyzed.",
      "summary": "Chromium picolinate reduced measured food intake, hunger and fat cravings compared with placebo. The difference in weight change did not reach statistical significance.",
      "journal": "Diabetes technology & therapeutics"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Chromium",
      "number": 73,
      "pmid": "16184071",
      "title": "A double-blind, placebo-controlled, exploratory trial of chromium picolinate in atypical depression: effect on carbohydrate craving.",
      "authors": "Docherty JP, Sack DA, Roffman M, Finch M, Komorowski JR.",
      "year": "2005",
      "doi": "10.1097/00131746-200509000-00004",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16184071/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "113 adults with atypical depression; 600 mcg elemental chromium as picolinate daily or placebo for eight weeks.",
      "summary": "The main depression outcomes did not differ significantly between groups. Appetite-related symptoms and an exploratory subgroup with pronounced carbohydrate cravings showed favorable signals.",
      "journal": "Journal of psychiatric practice"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Chromium",
      "number": 74,
      "pmid": "23751236",
      "title": "A double-blind, randomized pilot trial of chromium picolinate for binge eating disorder: results of the Binge Eating and Chromium (BEACh) study.",
      "authors": "Brownley KA, Von Holle A, Hamer RM, La Via M, Bulik CM.",
      "year": "2013",
      "doi": "10.1016/j.jpsychores.2013.03.092",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23751236/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "24 overweight adults with binge-eating disorder; 600 or 1,000 mcg chromium as picolinate daily or placebo for six months.",
      "summary": "Fasting glucose improved, but reductions in binge frequency, weight and depression symptoms were not statistically significant. The pilot was too small for firm efficacy conclusions.",
      "journal": "Journal of psychosomatic research"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Chromium",
      "number": 75,
      "pmid": "16873787",
      "title": "Chromium picolinate supplementation attenuates body weight gain and increases insulin sensitivity in subjects with type 2 diabetes.",
      "authors": "Martin J, Wang ZQ, Zhang XH, Wachtel D, Volaufova J, Matthews DE, Cefalu WT.",
      "year": "2006",
      "doi": "10.2337/dc06-0254",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16873787/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "Adults with type 2 diabetes on glipizide; 29 randomized to placebo or 1,000 mcg chromium as picolinate for six months.",
      "summary": "Chromium improved insulin sensitivity and glucose control and attenuated weight gain compared with placebo. The effect occurred in a medication-treated diabetes population.",
      "journal": "Diabetes care"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Chromium",
      "number": 76,
      "pmid": "19422140",
      "title": "Chromium picolinate does not improve key features of metabolic syndrome in obese nondiabetic adults.",
      "authors": "Iqbal N, Cardillo S, Volger S, Bloedon LT, Anderson RA, Boston R, Szapary PO.",
      "year": "2009",
      "doi": "10.1089/met.2008.0048",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19422140/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "63 adults with metabolic syndrome without diabetes; 1,000 mcg/day chromium as picolinate or placebo for 16 weeks.",
      "summary": "Chromium did not significantly improve the primary insulin-sensitivity measure or most other metabolic outcomes. An acute insulin-response measure increased.",
      "journal": "Metabolic syndrome and related disorders"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Chromium",
      "number": 77,
      "pmid": "20634174",
      "title": "Chromium effects on glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity in persons at risk for diabetes mellitus.",
      "authors": "Ali A, Ma Y, Reynolds J, Wise JP, Inzucchi SE, Katz DL.",
      "year": "2011",
      "doi": "10.4158/ep10131.or",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20634174/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "59 adults at increased diabetes risk; modified crossover; 500 or 1,000 mcg/day picolinate supplementation for six-month periods.",
      "summary": "Neither dose improved glucose, insulin or insulin-resistance measures versus placebo. Secondary cardiometabolic outcomes also did not improve.",
      "journal": "Endocrine practice : official journal of the American College of Endocrinology and the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Chromium",
      "number": 78,
      "pmid": "41840296",
      "title": "The Effect of Chromium Picolinate Supplementation on Cardiometabolic Biomarkers, Tumor Necrosis Factor-α Gene Expression, and DNA Damage in Subjects with Metabolic Syndrome: a Randomized Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial.",
      "authors": "Ebrahimzadehkour B, Jambarsang S, Karimpour F, Hosseini SE, Ramezani V, Jowshan MR, Mozaffari-Khosravi H.",
      "year": "2026",
      "doi": "10.1007/s12011-025-04950-1",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41840296/",
      "kind": "Human trial",
      "design": "48 adults with metabolic syndrome randomized, 40 completed; 400 mcg/day chromium picolinate or placebo for 12 weeks.",
      "summary": "The 2026 trial reported modest improvements in HbA1c, HDL cholesterol and blood pressure, with selected adjusted comparisons remaining significant. It did not measure snack intake or demonstrate the polyursolate form.",
      "journal": "Biological trace element research"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Chromium",
      "number": 79,
      "pmid": "31115179",
      "title": "A meta-analysis of the effect of chromium supplementation on anthropometric indices of subjects with overweight or obesity.",
      "authors": "Tsang C, Taghizadeh M, Aghabagheri E, Asemi Z, Jafarnejad S.",
      "year": "2019",
      "doi": "10.1111/cob.12313",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31115179/",
      "kind": "Systematic review",
      "design": "21 trials from 19 studies involving 1,316 overweight or obese participants.",
      "summary": "Chromium was associated with small pooled reductions in weight, BMI and body-fat percentage; the average weight difference was about 0.75 kg. The authors questioned how clinically meaningful these changes were.",
      "journal": "Clinical obesity"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Chromium",
      "number": 80,
      "pmid": "39541030",
      "title": "Chromium supplementation and type 2 diabetes mellitus: an extensive systematic review.",
      "authors": "Georgaki MN, Tsokkou S, Keramas A, Papamitsou T, Karachrysafi S, Kazakis N.",
      "year": "2024",
      "doi": "10.1007/s10653-024-02297-5",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39541030/",
      "kind": "Systematic review",
      "design": "Review of randomized diabetes trials published from 2000 through January 2024; multiple chromium forms and doses.",
      "summary": "Several trials reported improved glucose or lipid markers, while inconsistency in form, dose and study design limited confidence. The review called for better research to clarify benefits and risks.",
      "journal": "Environmental geochemistry and health"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "Chromium",
      "number": 81,
      "pmid": "38084146",
      "title": "Chromium - a scoping review for Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023.",
      "authors": "Henriksen C, Bügel S.",
      "year": "2023",
      "doi": "10.29219/fnr.v67.10325",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38084146/",
      "kind": "Review",
      "design": "Scoping review for the Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023.",
      "summary": "The review describes uncertainty about chromium’s essentiality, status assessment and a recommended intake. High-dose supplement studies do not establish a requirement obtainable through ordinary food intake.",
      "journal": "Food & nutrition research"
    },
    {
      "ingredient": "GLP-1 measurement",
      "number": 82,
      "pmid": "25596009",
      "title": "Stability of glucagon-like peptide 1 and glucagon in human plasma.",
      "authors": "Wewer Albrechtsen NJ, Bak MJ, Hartmann B, Christensen LW, Kuhre RE, Deacon CF, Holst JJ.",
      "year": "2015",
      "doi": "10.1530/ec-14-0126",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25596009/",
      "kind": "Methods study",
      "design": "Human plasma stability experiments; temperature, enzyme inhibitors, storage and freeze–thaw conditions.",
      "summary": "Sample handling materially affected hormone recovery, and cooling plus DPP-4 inhibition helped preserve intact GLP-1. Total and active GLP-1 assays measure different molecular pools and need different interpretation.",
      "journal": "Endocrine connections"
    }
  ]
}